Egypt

Notes pg 661-666 Egypt and the Rise of Nationalism in the Middle East:   MI ﻿- Egyptian independence was aimed at liberating themselves from Turkish overlords and the meddling Europeans, mostly Britain.
 * After British conquest, government policy was ruled by **Lord Cromer**.
 * He pushed for economic reforms that reduced but could not eliminate their debt with the khedival regime.
 * Also supervised reforms in the bureaucracy and the construction of irrigation systems and other public works project.
 * Prosperity brought on by Britain was enjoyed only by a tiny middle and elite upper-class.
 * Beneficiaries: foreign merchants, Turco-Egyptian political elite, a small Egyptian bourgeoisie in Cairo, and the ayan (Great landlords in rural areas)
 * Khedival regime and great landlords closely allied with British overlords, resistance was left to the middle class.
 * Egyptian independence was taken up by the sons of the **effendi**
 * effendi - prosperous business and professional families that made up most of this new middle class.
 * Unlike India, who's independence started with lawyers, journalists (many educated in France) led the way for Egypt.
 * in 1890s and 1900, several newspapers printed in Arabic (some in french and english) exposed British mistakes and the corruption of the khedival regime.
 * Attacked British for their racist arrogance.
 * 1890s first nationalist party was formed, but many rival parties also formed.
 * By 1907 there were 3 main parties but none could speak for most of the population.
 * Great majority of Egyptians were illiterate, poorly paid, and largely ignored urban laborers and rural farmers.
 * British repression but down student riot and assassination attempt on high British and Turco-Egyptian officials.
 * National parties failed to unite and build a mass base.
 * **Dinshawai incident** put an end to any support that remained for the British stay in Egypt.
 * Incident motivated national parties to put an end to Egypt's corruption, mostly due to harsh British punishments from incident.
 * Possibility of building a mass base for anti-British agitation.
 * Incident gave way for support and protests.
 * By 1913 Britain was worried so they granted a constitution and representation in a parliament elected by men of wealth.
 * WWI temporarily stopped independence movement but after war like in India support was stronger than ever.

Revolt in Egypt, 1919 MI - As Egypt grew tired of British colonization in Egypt, war broke out for Independence.


 * As the Egyptian revolt progressed and the war continues, it had a heavy toll on the people of Egypt, especially the peasantry.
 * Marshal laws were declared in Britain to prevent Muslim uprisings as a response to Turkish calls for a Holy War.
 * Unrest grew as food shortages occurred and even starvation in some areas.
 * Mass discontent strengthened and educated nationalist elites demanded a hearing at Versailles.
 * Egyptian leaders were denied a hearing so they called for mass demonstration.
 * Student-led riots occurred throughout Egypt, Cairo was completely cut off from the world at one point.
 * British able to restore control but it was clear that a hearing had to take place for Egyptians.
 * Newly formed **Wafd party** under the leadership of **Sa'd Zaghul** provided nationalist support and unification like never before.
 * After years of bargaining Britain withdrew in stages out of Egypt.
 * Britain allowed to reoccupy Egypt if it were threatened by a foreign aggressor.
 * Even though now independent, Egyptian leaders did little to relieve the great misery of the majority of Egyptians.
 * Leaders saw gaining powers as a way for individual riches and not benefiting the state.
 * By 1950s 70% of Egypt's cultivable land was owned by 6% of the population. 12000 families controlled 37% of the farmland.
 * 98% of the Peasants were illiterate and about 95% of rural Egyptians suffered from eye diseases.
 * Though independent things didn't get much better for the Egyptians.

Notes pg 778-801 Military Responses: Dictatorships and Revolutions MI - After independance several nations face a struggle between the military and civilians on several issues.
 * Armed forces are usually divided by religious and ethinic rivalries that spring from new nations.
 * Military forces usually have had some sort of training unlike civilian nationalist parties and humanitarian ways.
 * Because military has been anti-communist, they gained Western support.
 * After in power, military leaders banned political and imposed military regimes. (on different degrees)
 * Worst military regimes = Uganda, Myanmar (formely Burma), and Congo.
 * Squashed civil liberties, and made little attempts to stop social inequalities, and improve living standards.
 * Military governments --> corruption
 * Most radical Military leader was **Gamal Abdul Nasser**, towards economic and social reforms. (took power in 1952)
 * **Free Officers movement** - radical movement in gaining power evolved from a secret organization established by th Egyptian army in the 1930s.
 * Allied to the Muslim Brotherhood, which was another revolutionary alternative to the khedival regime.
 * Muslim Brotherhood founded by Hasan al-Banna in 1928.
 * Meant to free Egypt of its foreign oppressors and stop injustices.
 * Promoted trade unions and medical clinics to educate women as well as pushing for land reforms.
 * In 1949 al-Bana was murdered by khedive Farouk's assassins.
 * After Egypts humiliating defestas in the first Arab-Israeli wars mass anger arose and the revolution had begun.
 * The monarchy was ended, and with the instalation of Nasser and the Free Officers, Egyptians had ruled themselves for the first time since the 6th century B.C.E.
 * 1954 = all political parties had been disbanded including the Muslim brotherhood.
 * Nasser used dictorial means to push through reforms that he believed would help the opressed Egyptians.
 * Believed only state could carry out essential social and economic reforms which meant they interviened in all aspects of Egyptian life.
 * Land limits were placed excessive land was distributed to the landless peasents.
 * Although well intended land reforms and restrictions caused anger and corruption.
 * Western investments which were needed in Egypt, soon dried up.
 * **Anwar Sadat** was Nasser's succesor.
 * He favored private rather than state initiative.
 * Middle class once again rose as a powerful force.
 * **Hosni Mubarak** was his succesor
 * Egyptian minority still struggled because neither the push for pro-western development or Arab revolution quite worked on Egypt.

__Leadership Analysis__: ﻿ **Gamal Abdel Nasser ﻿ **
 * Name of Leader: Nasser ||
 * Lifespan: 1918-1970 || Title: President  ||
 * Country/region: Egypt || Years in Power: 1956-1970  ||
 * Political, Social, & Economic Conditions Prior to Leaders Gaining Power:
 * Egypt’s population was rapidly growing, and they could not control the corruption of the bureaucracy.
 * Military people were very skilled in technical training.
 * Military leaders were anticommunist which resulted in technical and financial assistance from the West.
 * They banned political parties and they imposed military regimes in Uganda and Myanmar and Congo.
 * They squashed the civil liberties and they reduced the living standards of the military people.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Promoted trade unions, built medical clinics and educated women for land reforms
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">After the war of 1948 there was a mass anger with the khedival and parliamentary regime, 1952 the khedival coup toppled.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">monarchy was ended, and the Egyptians ruled themselves for the first time since the 6th century
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">1954 all of the political parties were disbanded, Nasser became president. ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Ideology, Motivations, Goals
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Wanted to become the world’s largest democracy.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Wanted to develop a better communication system, along with a more skilled middle class.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Wanted to develop a new world without colonization.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Get rid of the royal family. ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Significant Actions & events During Term of Power:
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">He opened Egypt to aid and investment from the U.S and Western Europe.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Middle class emerged as a powerful force.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">He opened Egypt to aid and investment from the U.S and Western Europe.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Nile Delta washed down by the river, investment funds dried up, population was rising at an alarming rate, which caused the state to not be able to afford the reform policies.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Launched programs that they believed would uplift the Egyptian masses.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Limits were placed on how much land an individual could own and lands were redistributed to peasants.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">State-controlled government schemes were introduced.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Stiff restrictions were placed on foreign investment. ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Short-Term effects:
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Egypt gained aid from the West because they were anti-communist.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Political parties were banned, and they imposed military regimes in Uganda and Myanmar and Congo.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">They squashed the civil liberties and they reduced the living standards of the military people. || <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Long-Term Effects:
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">India developed one of the largest and most sophisticated high-tech sectors in the world.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Wealthy landlords supported the nationalist drives for independence.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Increased gap between rich and poor people which resulted in the poor having to pay the price for Indian gradualism.
 * <span style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">India remains the world’s largest democracy, regardless of all their problems. ||